COMPOUNDS COVALENT

Polar covalent compounds
A polar covalent bond is called, if the couple Electron Institute (PEI) more strongly attracted to any one atom.
polarity of a covalent bond is caused by the difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms.
For example HCl molecule

 

 

Although the H and Cl atoms are equally attractive pair of electrons, but greater than the electronegativity Clatom H.
Consequently Cl atoms attract the electron pair bond (PEI) is stronger than the H atom that lies closer to PEI Cl(resulting in a kind of polar molecules in HCl).
These characteristics are polar covalent compounds when:
1.Berbentuk not symmetric
cont. H2O and NH3

2. Having a dipole moment
Dipole Moment (μ)
Is a quantity that is used to express the polarity of a covalent bond.
formulated:
μ = Q x R, 1 D = 3.33 x 10-30 C.m
caption:
μ = dipole moment, Debye units (D)
Q = the difference in the charge, the units of coulombs (C)
r = distance between the positive charge with a negative charge, units meters (m)
Dipole moment occurs because of covalent compounds formed from two atoms with different electronegativity
Cont.HCl, HBr

Non Polar Covalent Compounds
A covalent bond is said to be non-polar (no pole), if PEI equally strong interest to all atoms.
Because the atoms of an element have similar electronegativity same price.
As a result, the charge of electrons distributed evenly so it does not form the poles.
Cont: H2, Cl2, N2, O2

The characteristics of non-polar covalent compounds
1. symmetrical
      For example, compounds
      CH4, CCl4, BF3, BeCl2
2. Do not have a dipole moment
Cont.CH4, CCl4, CBr4

Thermokimia

Thermochemistry is the branch of chemistry dealing with reciprocity heat with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state. In general, is the application of thermochemical for chemical thermodynamics.Thermochemistry is the synonym of chemical thermodynamics.The main objective is the formation of chemical thermodynamics criteria for the determination of the terms or spontaneity possibility of transformation required. [1] In this way, estimates used thermochemical energy changes that occur in the following processes:

    chemical reaction
    phase change
    forming solutionThermochemistry is primarily concerned with the function of the following conditions are confirmed in thermodynamics:


    Energy in the (U)
Energy in (E) is the total kinetic energy (Ek) and potential energy (Ep) in the system. Therefore, energy can be defined by the equation E = Ek + Ep. However, because the kinetic energy and potential energy in a system can not be measured, then the energy in a system also can not be determined, which can be determined is the energy change in a system.The change in energy can be determined by measuring the heat (q) and work (w), which would arise if the system reacts. Therefore, changes in the energy equation formulated E = q + w.If the system absorbs heat, then q is positive. If the system issued a heat, then q is negative.If the system does work, then the formula w is positive. If the system is working by lingungan, then w is negative.So if a system absorbs heat from the environment by 10 kJ, and the system also does work at 6 kJ, the energy change in his will of 16 kJ.Energy changes in the value 0 if the number of the incoming heat equal to the amount of work done, and if the heat released is equal to the work imposed on the system. That is, no changes in energy that occur in the system.

    Enthalpy (H).
Adala enthalpyh term in thermodynamics that states the amount of internal energy of a thermodynamic system plus the energy used to do work. Enthalpy can not be measured, which can be calculated is the value changes.Mathematically, the enthalpy change can be formulated as follows:ΔH = ΔU + PΔVwhere:

    H = enthalpy of the system (joules)
    U = internal energy (joules)
    P = pressure of the system (Pa)
    V = system volume (m3)


    Entropy (S)
Thermodynamics (Greek: thermos = 'hot' and dynamic = 'change') is the physics of energy, heat, work, entropy and the spontaneity of processes. Thermodynamics closely related to statistical mechanics where many thermodynamic relations derived.While dealing with a process in which systems exchange matter or energy, classical thermodynamics is not related to the speed of the process, called kinetic. For this reason, use of the term "thermodynamics" usually refers to the thermodynamic equilibrium. In this connection, a key concept in thermodynamics is kuasistatik process, the idealized, the "super slow". Time-dependent thermodynamic processes studied in non-equilibrium thermodynamics.Since thermodynamics is not concerned with the concept of time, it has been proposed that the thermodynamic equilibrium should be called thermostatic.Laws of thermodynamics truth is very common, and these laws are not dependent on the details of the interactions or the systems being studied. This means they can be applied to a system in which a person does not know anything but the balance of energy and matter transfer between them and the environment. Examples include estimates Einstein spontaneous emission in the 20th century and current research on the thermodynamics of black objects.Everyday experience shows that a pond does not freeze in the summer. If a hot object interacts with a cold object, it would not be that hot body is getting hotter and cold items colder, although these processes are not breaking the law of conservation of energy expressed as the first law of thermodynamics.The second law of thermodynamics relates to whether these processes are considered to be the first law abiding principle, occur or do not occur in nature. The second law of thermodynamics as expressed by the Clausius said,? For a cyclical machine it is not possible to produce other effects, in addition to continuously convey heat from an object to another object at a higher temperature. "When viewed Carnot cycle, the cycle consists of four hypotheses irreversible processes: isothermal expansion with the addition of heat, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression with heat release and adiabatic compression, if the integral of a quantity circling any closed path is zero, then the quantity is the state variable , has a value that is only a characteristic of the state of the system, no matter what the situation is. State variable in this case is the entropy. Gayut entropy change only the initial state and the final state and no gayut process connecting the initial state and the final state of the system.The second law of thermodynamics in the concept of entropy says, "A natural process that began in one state of equilibrium and end up in a state of equilibrium others will move in the direction that causes the entropy of the system and its environment grows".If the entropy associated with the disorder, the statement of the second law of thermodynamics in the natural processes tend to increase equivalent states, and the chaos of the system tends to increase.In the free expansion, the gas molecules occupy the whole space box is more chaotic than when the gas molecules occupy half the space box. If two objects have different temperatures T1 and T2 interact, thereby achieving a uniform temperature T, it can be said that the system becomes more chaotic, in a sense, the statement "all of the molecules in the system corresponds to the temperature T is weaker when compared tostatement of all the molecules in the body corresponds to a temperature T1 and object B corresponds to the temperature T2 ".In the statistical mechanics, the relationship between entropy and chaos parameters are, pers. (1):S = k log wwhere k is the Boltzmann constant, S is the entropy of the system, w is a parameter chaos, the possibility of its being of the system relative to all the circumstances that may be occupied.If the terms change in entropy of an ideal gas in isothermal expansion, where the number of molecules and the temperature has not changed while the volume is greater, then the possibility of a molecule can be found in the area of ​​volume V is proportional to V, ie, the larger V, the greater the opportunity for discovered molecule in V.Possibility of finding a single molecule in V are, pers. (2):W1 = c Vwhere c is a constant. The chances of finding N molecules simultaneously in the volume V is N times the result of w. Namely, the possibility of a state consisting of N molecules in volume V is, pers. (3):w = W1N = (CV) N.If equation (3) substituted into (1), the difference in entropy of an ideal gas in an isothermal expansion process where the temperature and number of molecules does not change, it is worth positive. This means that the entropy of an ideal gas in an isothermal expansion process is increased.Statistical definition of the entropy, ie, equation (1), connect an overview of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics description which allows to put the second law of thermodynamics to statistical base. Direction in which natural processes will occur toward higher entropy is determined by the laws of probability, ie, toward a state more likely. In this case, the state of equilibrium is a state where the maximum entropy in thermodynamics and circumstances are most likely to be statistically. But the fluctuations, ie Brownian motion, can occur around the equilibrium distribution. From this perspective, it is essential that the entropy will increase in every spontaneous process. Entropy can sometimes be reduced. If you wait long enough, the situation is not likely to happen once: the water in the pond suddenly froze on a hot summer day or a local vacuum occurs suddenly in a room. The second law of thermodynamics shows the direction events are most likely, not just possible events.

WASTE

Waste is waste generated from the production process of both industrial and domestic (household). Where people live, that's where various types of waste will be generated. There is trash, no water toilet (black water), and there is waste water from a variety of other domestic activities (gray water). [1]
Solid waste better known as junk, which is often undesirable because its presence has no economic value. When reviewed in chemical, waste consists of organic chemical compounds and inorganic compounds. With concentration and a certain quantity, the presence of waste can have a negative impact on the environment, especially to human health, so we need to waste handling. Level of danger posed by the waste poisoning depend on the type and characteristics of the waste.

Waste treatment
Several factors affect the quality of the volume of waste is waste, pollutant content, and frequency of waste disposal. To address this waste processing and waste handling required. Basically, this waste can be distinguished:

1. processing according to the level of treatment
2. processing according to the characteristics of the waste
To address the waste and water runoff (rain), then a residential area requires different types of sanitation services. Sanitation services can not always be interpreted as a form of services provided by other parties. There are also sanitation services to be provided by the community, especially the owner or occupant of the house, such as latrines. [1]
1. Domestic wastewater service: service to handle waste water sanitation latrines. [1]
2. Proper latrines should have access to sufficient water besrsih and air handling units connected to the proper latrines. If there is no private toilet, then the public needs to have access to a shared latrine or toilet. [1]
3. Garbage service. This service begins with pewadahan trash and garbage collection. The collection is done by using a cart or a garbage truck. Services must also be equipped with a garbage disposal while (TPS), landfills (landfill), or other waste treatment facilities. In some residential areas, services to address the waste developed collectively by the community. Some are more collective efforts to include composting and collection efforts worthy of recycled materials. [1]
4. Service is handling the drainage of rainwater runoff using drainage channels (ditches) that will hold the runoff water and running it into the receiving water bodies. Drainage channel dimensions should be large enough to accommodate rainwater runoff from the area it serves. Drainage must have adequate slope and free from litter. [1]
5. The provision of clean water should be available in a sustainable settlement in sufficient quantities. Clean water is not only to meet the needs of eating, drinking, bathing, and toilet facilities only, but also for washing and cleaning the environment. [1]
Characteristics of waste
1. Micro-sized
2. Dynamic
3. High impact (spread)
4. Long-term impact (across generations)

Industrial waste
Based on the characteristics of industrial waste can be divided into four sections, namely:
1. Liquid waste is commonly known as a water pollutant entity. Components of water pollution consists mainly of solid waste materials, organic waste material and inorganic waste material
2. Solid Waste
3. Waste gases and particles

                                                                                          
Process Air Pollution All chemical species are included or entry into the atmosphere of a "clean" called contaminants. Contaminants at concentrations high enough to cause a negative effect on the receiver (receptor), when this happens, the contaminant known contaminant (pollutant). Contamination of air diklasifihasikan into 2 categories according to how contaminants into or added to the atmosphere are: contamination of primary and secondary contamination. Contamination is the primary contaminant emitted directly from the source of contamination. Secondary contaminants are contaminants that are formed by chemical processes in the atmosphere.
Sources of contamination from human activity (anthropogenic) is any motor vehicle, facility, plant, installation or activity that emits primary air contaminants to the atmosphere. There are 2 categories of anthropogenic sources, namely: fixed sources (stationery source) such as: electricity generation with fossil fuels, factories, households, services, etc. and other (mobile source) such as trucks, buses, airplanes, and train.

Five primary contaminant in total contributed over 90% of global air pollution are:
a. Carbon monoxide (CO),
b. Nitrogen oxides (NOx),
c. Hydrocarbons (HC),
d. Sulfur oxides (SOx)
e. Particulates.

In addition there is a primary contaminant secondary contamination is contamination that secondary impacts on environmental components or contaminants emitted from the primary contaminant transformation into a different form of contamination. There are several secondary contamination that can lead to significant impacts both locally, regionally and globally, namely:
a. CO2 (carbon monoxide),
b. Contamination smog (smoke fog) or smog (smoke fog),
c. Acid rain,
d. CFC (Chloro-Fluoro-Carbon/Freon),
e. CH4 (methane).

B3 waste (hazardous and toxic materials)
In general, the so-called waste is waste material resulting from the activities and production processes, both at household, industrial, mining, and so on. Forms can be a waste of gas and dust, liquid or solid. Among the various types of waste that are no toxic or hazardous and is recognized as hazardous and toxic waste (B3).
A waste is classified as hazardous if it contains B3 hazardous or toxic nature and concentration, either directly or indirectly, damage or pollute the environment or harm the health manusia.Yang including B3 include raw materials that are not hazardous to use again because of damage, waste packaging, spill, residual process and ship used oil that require special handling and processing. These materials include the B3 waste if you have one or more of the following characteristics: explosive, flammable, reactive, toxic, infectious, corrosive, etc., which when tested with known toxicology can include B3 waste.

Kinds of Toxic Waste
• Explosive Waste is waste through chemical reactions can produce gas with high temperature and pressure which can quickly damage the environment.
• Combustible waste is waste when adjacent to the fire, sparks, friction or other ignition sources or flammable will burn and when it has been great light will continue to burn for a long time.
• reactive waste is waste that cause a fire due to release or receive oxygen or organic peroxide wastes that are not stable in high temperatures.
• toxic waste is waste that contains toxins that are harmful to humans and the environment. B3 waste may cause death or illness when it enters the body through breathing, skin or mouth.
• The waste is infectious waste or infected laboratory waste containing an infectious agent, such as an amputated human body parts and fluids of the human body with an infection.
• Waste is waste that is corrosive to the skin or cause irritation mengkorosikan steel, which has a pH equal to or less than 2.0 for the acidic waste and greater than 12.5 for alkaline.
B3 Waste Management is a series of activities that include reduction, storage, collection, transportation, utilization, processing and landfilling B3 waste. B3 Waste Management aims to prevent, cope with pollution and environmental damage, restore polluted environmental quality, and increase the capabilities and functions of environmental quality